nairs

Nāyar (Malayalam: നായര്‍, pronounced [naːjar] most commonly spelt Nair) is the name of a Hindu[1] upper caste from the southern Indian state of Kerala. The Nairs were a martial nobility and figured prominently in the history of Kerala. Before the British conquest in 1792, the Kerala region contained small, feudal kingdoms, in each of which the royal and noble lineages, the militia, and most land managers were drawn from the Nayars and related castes[2]. During British rule, Nayars became prominent in politics, government service, medicine, education, and law.[3]

Nairs were traditionally matrilineal. Their family unit, the members of which owned property jointly, included brothers and sisters, the latter's children, and their daughters' children. The oldest man was legal head of the group. Rules of marriage and residence varied somewhat between kingdoms.[4]

The Nairs were famous for their martial history, including their involvement in Kalaripayattu and the role of Nair warlords in the Mamankam ritual. The Nairs were classed as a martial race[5][6][7][8] by the British, but were de-listed after rebelling against them under Velu Thampi Dalawa, and thereafter were recruited in low numbers into the British Indian Army. Only Nairs were recruited into the Thiruvithamkoor Nayar Pattalam (Travancore State Army), until 1935 when non-Nairs were started getting admitted. This State Force (known also as the Nair Brigade) was merged into the Indian Army after independence and became the 9th Battalion Madras Regiment which is the oldest Battalion in the Indian Army.

It is believed that the Kolathiri and Travancore kingdoms had Nair origins[9]. The Zamorin Raja was a Samanthan Nair[10] and the Arakkal kingdom of Kannur, which was the only Muslim kingdom in the Kerala region, also had Nair origins[11][12][13]. Nair feudal families such as the Ettuveetil Pillamar were extremely influential in the past and often had greater influence than the Raja.


Etymology

The word Nair lends itself to two etymological interpretations. The first interpretation is that the word Nair is derived from the Sanskrit word Nayaka meaning leader. The Sanskrit word Nayaka appears in various forms in southern India (Nayakan/Naicker in Tamil Nadu, Nayak in Karnataka and Maharashtra, and Nayudu in Andhra Pradesh) and the word Nair has been suggested to be the corruption of Nayak in Malayalam[14][15]. The second interpretation is that the word Nair is a corrupted form of the word Nagar- serpent men because Nairs practiced snake worship.[16]

The family name Nair or Nayar also occur in Punjab, belonging to a Khatri community.



According to Dr K.K Pillai, the first reference about the Nairs is in an inscription dated to the 9th century A.D.[17]

The Nairs have been described as a "race caste who do not owe their origin to function, although, by force of example, their organization is almost equally rigid, and they are generally identified with particular trades or occupations. These race caste communities were originally tribes, but on entering the fold of Hinduism, they imitated the Hindu social organization, and have thus gradually hardened to castes"[18]. However this does not rule out the possibility that the Nairs do not constitute a homogeneous ethnic group as it is possible that each subcaste or clan may have different origins. For example, members from other tribes or communities were adopted into the Nair fold once Nair became to be known to refer to a caste, such as the Tamil Padam Nairs. There have also been incidents where the Nair caste status was bestowed upon persons favoured by the Raja.

A number of sociologists are of the view that the Nairs are not indigenous to Kerala, as many customs and traditions distinguish them from other Keralites. According to one theory, Nairs are descendants of the Newars of Nepal, who joined the Munda exodus and later migrated to Kerala. The most prominent arguments given in support of this theory are the presence of distinct pagoda-like architectural style of Nair Tharavaadus and Temples and the practice of Marumakkathaayam (matrilinial) system of inheritance similar to both Nairs and Newars.[19]

There is also a hypothesis on the basis of mythology that the Nairs are Nagas and were Kshatriyas belonging to the Serpent dynasty (Nagavansham) who removed their sacred thread and migrated south to escape the wrath of a vengeful Parashurama. A Naga origin from Rohilkhand has been suggested[20]. The affinity of the Nair community towards serpent worship, their martial past, and the absence of the sacred thread lends support to this theory. In addition, the Travancore State Manual states that there were indeed serpent-worshiping Nagas in Kerala who fought with the Namboothiris till they reached a consensus. The Nairs have also been classified as of Indo-Scythian (Saka) origin as well as being linked to the Nagas[21][22].

According to Chattampi Swamikal, who interpreted old Tamil texts, the Nairs were Naka (Naga or Snake) Lords who ruled as feudal lords in the Chera kingdom. Therefore this theory proposes Nairs to be descendants of the rulers and martial nobility of pre-Brahmin Kerala who, after the arrival of the Namboothiris (and establishment of the Varnas/Caste System), got categorized as sat Sudras.[23]. However, Nairs have also been classed as Kshatriyas[24][25]. One finds mention of the Nairs during the reign of the King Rama Varma Kulashekhara (1020-1102) of the second Chera dynasty, when the Chera Kingdom was attacked by the Cholas. The Nairs fought by forming suicide squads (Chavers) against the invading force. It is not clear whether the Cheras themselves were Nairs, or if the Cheras employed the Nairs as a warrior class.[19]

The Sanskrit Kerala Mahatmayam, an upa purana of the Bhoogola Purana, calls them the progeny of Namboodiri men with Deva, Rakshasa and Gandharva women.

[edit] Connection with Bunts and Tulu Nadu

The 17th century the Brahmin-inspired Keralolpathi and Grama Padhati describes the Nairs of Kerala and the similarly matrilineal Bunts of southern Tulu Nadu as descendants of the Sudras who accompanied the Brahmins to Kerala and Tulu Nadu respectively from Ahichatra/Ahikshetra in southern Panchala. It is almost certain that “in the early centuries of the Christian era, there were kings, some independent and some under the suzerain of overlords like Kadambas, Chalukyas and Hoysalas. There were constant skirmishes and fighting, and the ‘Buntaru’ or warriors were important stabilizing segments of the population. In due course the Bunts succeeded in becoming owners of lands that did not fall into the hands of the priestly class, namely Brahmins.” – South Kanara Mannual, Vol I.

The Manual of Madras Administration Vol II (printed in 1885) notes that the Nadavas are the same people as the Nairs of Malabar and the Bunts of southern Tulu Nadu:

They appear to have entered Malabar from the North rather than the South and to have peopled first the Tulu, and then the Malayalam country. They were probably the off-shoot of some colony in the Konkan or the Deccan. In Malabar and south of Kanara as far as Kasargod, they are called Nayars and their language is Malayalam. From Kasargod to Brahmavar, they are termed as Bunts and speak Tulu. To the north of Brahmavar, they are called Nadavars, and they speak Kanarese.

The Nairs have disappeared as an entity from Tulu Nadu but the inscriptions found in Barkur from the medieval period as well as the Grama Padathi, which gives the history of Brahmin families in Tulu Nadu, have made several references to the Nairs. They seemed to have intimate connections with the Brahmins and acted as their protectors, perhaps brought to Tulu Nadu by the Kadamba kings in the 8th century. Kadamba king Mayuravarma, who is credited with bringing Brahmins from Ahichatra (from the north), also settled Nairs in Tulu Nadu. Yet, there is no written proof for this occurrence and the only mention of the Nairs in the inscriptions comes after the Alupa period (early part of 14th century). It is postulated that the Nairs were later absorbed into the social stratum of the Nadava community.

[edit] History

Middle age South Indian history, historians, and foreign travelers referred to the Nairs as a dignified martial nobility. The earliest reference to Nairs[citation needed] comes from the Greek ambassador Megasthenes. In his accounts of ancient India, he refers to the "Nayars of Malabar" and the "Kingdom of Chera"[26].

Irrespective of the different theories that seek to explain the origin of Nairs, it is clear that till the early 20th century, Nairs exerted their influence in medieval Kerala society as feudal lords and owned large estates. The position in society of the Nairs as that of a martial nobility in medieval Kerala has been likened to the position in society of the Samurai in medieval Japan[27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34]. Nairs dominated the civil, administrative and military elite of the pre-British era in Kerala.[citation needed] The decline of Nair dominance came about in multiple stages. During colonial times, the British perceived that Nairs were an inherent threat to their hegemony in the region and therefore outlawed their right to bear weapons and by banning the Nair martial art of Kalaripayattu.[35][36] Weapons were integral to the Nair psyche and power, and combined with repressive legislation led to a loss of social standing for Nairs, though some of the social legislation was in part inspired by the Nairs themselves, such as changes in inheritance law permitting the Karanavan to pass on some (and later all) of the fruits of his stewardship of the taravad to his own children. During post-colonial years, the Land reforms of 1950's led to massive loss of land-ownership by Nair feudal lords and some Nair gentry were relegated to poverty overnight. The decline of Nair dominance was however tempered by their conversion through the 20th century to the academic and professional classes and their high profile in Kerala politics.


Early in the British period, Nāyar armies were disbanded. Perhaps partly as a result, plural marital unions gradually died out in the 19th century. Children began to be maintained by their father, to support him in his old age, and to perform the ceremonies at his death. Laws passed in the 1930s enforced monogamy, permitted division of the matrilineal estate among male and female members, and gave children full rights of maintenance and inheritance from the father. By the mid-20th century it was increasingly common, especially in towns, for nuclear families to form separate residential and economic units.[37]

Additional factors such as the impact of the market economy, the disappearance of traditional military training, the absorption of new values through the new system of education, the self-consciousness being generated among the lower castes and their cry for equality and privileges brought about a decline of Nair dominance.[38]

[edit] Typical surnames

Nair surnames were traditionally carried through matrilineality, although most modern Nairs follow patrilineal nomenclature. The surname Nair, sometimes spelled "Nayar" is commonly used by all sub-castes belonging to Nair caste. However, there are surnames which are reminders of the honours conferred upon individuals by the powers that be from time to time in acknowledgment of exceptional acts of valour, erudition and scholarship, or excellence in chosen field of endeavour. The families of these individuals inherited the titles. It is also possible that in the majority of cases, such honours were bestowed by the Royalty in return for services rendered and in recognition of a display of loyalty. In general, the system of conferring honours points to the ruling Monarch's dependence on the Nairs who provided them with military and administrative support. While most of these are ranks and positions in a feudal set up (similar to the Mughals' Mansabdari system), such royal patronage was crucial to the development and promotion of strikingly singular forms of dance and drama such as Kathakali of which, the Nairs were exponents.

V.Nagam Aiya, Dewan Peishcar, Travancore, in his Travancore State Manual states that although all the Malayala Sudras, 18 castes in total, were classed under the general head of Nair, in reality there were only five "genuine" Nair castes. These included:

* Kiryathil Nairs : They are the highest class of Nairs found usually in Malabar and Cochin. The 17th century Keralolpathi [39] states them to be descendants of warrior Naga tribes who came to Kerala from the north along the western coast. It may be noted that the earlier Keralamahatmayam, an Upa Purana of the Bhoogola Hindu Purana, does not make mention of any subcastes among the Nairs but only states them to be the military caste of Kerala.
* Illathu Nairs : They were brought in by Parasurama, as per the Keralolpathi, to serve the Brahmins as tenants, servants, warriors, cultivators etc. Purificatory rites by the Maarans and priestly service from the Elayatus distinguished the Illathu Nairs.
* Swaroopathil Nairs or Cherna Nairs : These Nairs were the warriors of Kshatriya Royal Households known as Swaroopams. In Malabar they are classed as Akathu Cherna Nairs and Purathu Cherna Nairs. The highest of Swaroopathil Nairs were those included in the Paroor Swaroopam, who being originally Illathu Nairs have their purificatory rites performed by Maarans.
* Pandamangalam Nairs : They were the Nairs appointed by Parasurama to serve in Temples. They migrated from Tamil Nadu of the Pandyan kingdom as it was then known.
* Tamil Padam Nairs : This class of Nairs, as the name indicates, were migrants from Tamil Nadu who were embraced into the Nair community.


Stratification between the different Nair subcastes is not very obvious in the present day, with individuals and families identifying themselves simply as "Nairs".

[edit] Earlier Customs and Traditions

The following information has been condensed from the Travancore State Manual by V.Nagam Aiya. The General appearance of the Nairs will be clear from the following quote, as noted by the author in 1901.
“ The Appearance of the well nourished Nair is perhaps among the finest in all India...the men and women among the Nairs are models of neatness and simplicity particularly in their dress, food and living. The men keep a small tuft of hair hanging in front, tied into a knot which is thrown behind or on the side, quite similar to the Tamil Brahmins while women have long black hair growing luxuriantly which they keep neat and orderly by constant bathing, rubbing of oil and use of comb. They tie it in a large bun suspended on the left side or in front. This is a very pretty observance and one that is worth imitation in other civilised countries ”

Nair men were identified by their Tufts of hair in the front side (Mun Kudumma), side burns (Krithavu) and the upturned Moustache. They always carried swords or daggers with them as a sign of dignity and authority.

[edit] Attire

Men wore Kaupinam (loin cloth) and a single strip of cloth, four or five cubits in length, known as the Mundu, round the waist and another one thrown over the shoulder or worn like a shawl(veshti). The lower cloth was not tucked between the legs as in northern India but was left to hang loose to the ground. The upper cloth known as the Neriatu was tied as a turban on the head while walking outside.
Azhakath Padmanabha Kurup, a 19th century poet and writer (The Azhakath Kurup, also known as Sri Karanayattu Kurup, was a member of the Ettara Yogam)
Azhakath Padmanabha Kurup, a 19th century poet and writer (The Azhakath Kurup, also known as Sri Karanayattu Kurup, was a member of the Ettara Yogam)

The dressing style of women was not generally distinguishable from that of men. On festive occasions the Pudava, a gilt bordered mundu, was worn. After the introduction of the Rauka (blouse) in the early 20th century, this particular dressing style went out of fashion. The mundu is still widely used by almost everybody in Kerala, though modern clothing, naturally, has found tremendous acceptance as well.

Men usually, besides amulets and rings, had their ears pierced and wore earrings studded with precious gems. Women had for the neck ornaments such as the Kantasaram, Nalupanti, Addiyal, Ponnu-Nool, Nagapadam (the most important ornament of a Nair lady), Arimbu Mani, Jnali Kuzhal, Minnum Maniyum, Arasillatali, Pachakkatali, Kasu Malai, Kuzhalmala, Rasi Tali, Padakkatali etc. For the nose, pendants called Mukuttis were worn set with ruby or diamond generally. For the arms, bangles such as Kattikappu, Maniyalakappu, Swarna-Sangala Muduku etc. were worn. For the waist, ornaments known as Kacchapuram were worn. Young girls wore ornaments even on their feet, known as Thanda or Padaswaram. The Nair ladies extended their ear lobes and the only two types of ornaments which were worn in the ears were a type of cylindrical ornament known as Takka or a two lipped biconvex disc considered more fashionable, known as the Toda. Jewels were not worn on the head. Tattooing was not favored among the Nairs and was considered demeaning.

[edit] Food and Drink

Boiled rice (Choru) and the rice gruel known as kanjee (pronounced /ˈkɒndʒiː/) formed the staple food of the Nairs. The coconut, jackfruit, plantain, mango and other fruits and vegetables were widely used. Coconut oil was also used widely. Ghee was used in well-to-do families and on festive occasions. Rice in the form of 'Kanji' or 'Choru' was served thrice a day at mealtimes along with curries and other additional dishes. Non-vegetarian food was not objectionable and fish was the most commonly consumed additional dish. Chicken and mutton (lamb) were also consumed. Many of them had a special liking for game meat. Generally beef was not eaten by Nairs. Killing of the cow was resented. They had a pious attitude towards cows just like other Hindus. Dairy items like milk, curd, buttermilk, butter and ghee were greatly relished. Alcoholic drinks as a rule were prohibited. Sweet dishes like Palpayasam and Ada Prathaman were prepared during festive occasions. Other special dishes included Kozhukkatta, Chivda, Elayappam (sweet), Ottada, Kaliyodakka, etc.

[edit] Marumakkathayam and Tharavadu

Main article: Tharavadu
Main article: Marumakkathayam

Nairs followed the Marumakkathayam (Matrilineal) system of inheritance and lived in units called Tharavadus ( matrilineal joint-family ). The tharavadu referred to relations of property (mudal sambandham) shared by a group tracing descent from a common ancestress. The outer boundary of tharavadus seems to have been defined by relations of pollution (pula sambandham), whereby a wider matrilineal kin group was knit by symbolic ties. Prominently, this involved sharing birth and death pollution and a memory of common descent. However, there are indications that, when expediency demanded, it was possible to break off even these pollution ties. For instance, in the case of a numerically large tharavadu, comprising a considerable section of the population of territory, death and birth pollution spelt a great inconvenience. In such cases, it could be decided to terminate pollution ties, even while the related groups continued to share a cremation ground.[40]

Architecturally wealthy tharavadus encompassed a Naalukettu or Ettukettu, a Kulam (fresh-water pond) and a Sarpa Kavu‎ (a sacred grove with trees and thick foliage for worship of the Nagathaan (Serpents) while in the case of some exceptionally wealthy families a private temple as well. The water body served the purpose of ritual baths, followed by Tantric worship in the Sarpakavu, phased out into rituals and ceremonies that repeated in cycles of days, months, and years often accompanied by feasts that witnessed a grand assembly of kin.


Interestingly, even though tharavadus existed based on descent from a common ancestress, it was comparatively rare for a remembered founder of a tharavadu to be a woman alone[41] and it showed a "structural" patriarchy of the Karnavar (seniormost male member). For instance in management of the tharavadu, Nair women managed domestic affairs in their natal tharavadus[42] and the senior woman’s decision making role was restricted to the inner domain of larger tharavadus in central and north Kerala.[43] However it was also not that the Karnavar had absolute powers in the tharavadu, but unlike in patrilineal families there was more than one node of power and a plural authority structure.[44] In practice, the senior woman, was not necessarily determined by seniority and might well be the oldest competent woman and yet seniority was a crucial factor in determining power relations between the Karnavar and the senior woman.[45] If the Karnavar was the son or younger brother of the senior woman, she might indeed be the de facto head of the group keeping accounts in her own hands and counseling him; but were he the older brother of the senior woman then she was subordinate to him.[45] In some wealthy tharavadus lands were set aside for women as stanum (a special status) property or otherwise over which they enjoyed varied claims does not in any way suggest ‘separate rights’ or access to their own separate revenues and properties.[46] In the matrilineal Tharavadus customary practice, rather than any religious precepts embodied in written sources, was the source of personal/family law. In the words of William Logan, an administrator-historian with extensive experience of Malabar:
“ If it were necessary to sum up in one word the law of the country, that word would undoubtedly be the word "custom". In Malayalam it would be "Maryada", "Margam", "Acharam" all signifying established rule and custom[47] ”

The marumakkathayam system and tharavadu system are not viable any more and has declined in tune with the social and cultural changes which have taken their toll on many old institutions. Social reforms spread with modern education. In other words, Nairs switched over to the patriarchal model of kinship and inheritance. The partition of tharavadus into individual shares (Alohari Bhaagam) followed the enactment of Land Reforms Ordinance that stipulated upper limits on land holdings. Many tharavadus, already bursting at the seams with internal dissensions and strife, collapsed under the pressure. The matrifocal system disintegrated. Fathers took charge of their sons and daughters and husband and wife started living together with their offspring. The "Marumakkathayam Law" which sanctioned dismantling of the tharavadus and the partition of property, came into vogue in the year 1933. 32,900 families were partitioned in Travancore alone by 1938. The tharavadu system of living became a thing of the past by the 1940s. Naalukettu and Ettukettu structures began to collapse, or were sold off.[48]

[edit] Kalarippayattu

Main article: Kalarippayattu



Kalarippayattu is the martial tradition of Kerala and the right to practice this martial art for the service of the ruler (Vazhunnavar) was predominantly vested with Nairs, however although less frequent, at least one subcaste of Brahmins (Chathira), one subcaste of Thiyyas (Chekors) as well as some Christians and Muslims seemed to have been bestowed with similar rights. Several social anthropologists and historians have documented the Nair dominance of the martial tradition of Kalaripayattu. For instance, The Kollam - Ramesvaram record states that the defence of the Chera kings and their city was entrusted to a group of Nair warriors known as Ayiram (The Thousand). This militia also called Onnu Kurai Ayiram (The Thousand without one) existed in Kodungallur through centuries and was a group consisting of Nair members proficient in the martial tradition of Kalaripayattu, organised on a hereditary basis (from the Nair tharavads -Valloppalli, Tayyappalli, Kilikkotta and Kattolli) for the protection of the Chera kings. The Keralolpathi also clearly states that the commander of the Patinayiram (The ten thousand- an alternate referral to the Ayiram militia) called Patamel Nair commanded the forces of the last Chera Perumal and was the Supreme Commander of his Army. It is interesting to note that during the extended period of warfare between the Cheras and the Cholas in the 11th century CE Nairs demonstrated their exceptional martial skills, courage, and nobility by forming elite suicide squads (Chaver-Pada) against the invading Chola forces. Also the once in 12 year Mamankam festival conducted by the Zamorin of Calicut during the medieval ages was an important platform when the Nair militia of the Zamorin and the Nair Chaver Pada of the Valluvakkonathiri used to demonstrate their superior skills in the Kalari martial tradition. Kalaripayattu therefore was an essential component of education mainly for Nair men and to a lesser extent Nair women and the Vadakkan Pattukal (Ballad tradition of Malabar) is prolific with descriptions of fencing skills and bravery of Nair warriors like Thacholi Othenan. The role of the Nair militia proficient in Kalaripayattu in putting strong resistance to the Chola invasion, European invaders and excesses by Tipu Sultan and Hyder Ali are well documented in the annals of Kerala history. However during colonial era Kalaripayattu was outlawed by British in 1793, leading to great loss of self esteem among Nairs.

[edit] Sambandham (Earlier Form of Marriage) and Related Customs

In the past Nairs had three major marriage/rite of passage ceremonies.

[edit] Kettu Kalyanam (Mock Marriage Ceremony)

Main article: Kettu Kalyanam

The thaali tying rite took place before the onset of puberty. During this ceremony the girl was married to a man, preferably the maternal uncle's son. The well-to-do families engaged Brahmins for this purpose by providing hefty 'Dakshina' (ceremonial fee). The ritual husband had no further duties to the girl after the completion of this ritual, although she had to observe a period of death impurity upon the death of her ritual husband. The thaali ceremony was a female centered ritual which emphasized fertility and household prosperity.[49][50] This ceremony had to be performed on pain of excommunication.

[edit] Thirandukalyanam (Announcement and Celebration of Puberty)

The Thirandukalyanam ceremony was the puberty ceremony, during which femininity is celebrated as women occupy the parts of the household typically inhabited by men [51].

[edit] Sambandham/Podamuri/pudava koda/Mundukoda (Casual Marriage Alliance)

Main article: Sambandham

The Sambandham ritual is less auspicious than the thaali and puberty rites, and literally means "alliance" or "relationship". It was the customary institution that framed casual marriage alliances between men and women following marumakkathayam. This ritual marks the union of the bride and groom and was not necessarily a permanent arrangement.[49][52][53] However it was this innate weakness of sambandham that helped maintaining the integrity of the matrilineal tharavadu.

Sambandham denoted hypergamy between Nair women and Namboothiri men as well as reciprocal marriage among Nairs.[54] However such an alliance was not recognized as constituting marriage by Namboothiri Brahmins as well as by colonial courts but was seen as comparable to concubinage.[53]. Two reasons cited for this were that dissolution of sambandham was fairly easy and that it did not give rise to property relations. Though viewed by Namboothiri Brahmins and European commentators as immoral, allied with polyandry, or even prostitution, sambandham was nothing of that sort for the Nair women. Sambandham essentially gave a Nair woman the liberty to initiate, consent to, or terminate a sexual relationship with any man and thereby formed one of the foundations of matrilineality. In addition, Nair women were autonomous, self-reliant, and enjoyed greater personal freedom than women in the rest of India.[55] William Logan in his Malabar Manual, page 136 says:
“ Although the theory of the law sanctions freedom in these relations, conjugal fidelity is very general. Nowhere is the marriage tie - albeit informal - more rigidly observed or respected, nowhere is it more jealously guarded or its neglect more savagely avenged. The very looseness of the law makes the individual observance closer; for people have more watchful care over things they are liable to lose. ”

In case of sambandham with Namboothiri men, the system benefited both the Namboothiri Brahmins as well as matrilineal castes like the Nairs for two reasons. First, Namboothiri brahmins had institutionalized primogeniture, permitting only the eldest son to marry within the caste. Younger sons (also called aphans) in Namboothiri families were expected to establish sambandham with Nair and Ambalavasi (temple service castes) women. Secondly, Nair families encouraged the sambandham arrangement with Namboothiri men, thereby increasing their tharavadu and caste status.[56] Such alliances between Nair women and Namboothiri men came to an end after the efforts of V.T Bhattathirippad in 1933.

In case of sambandham with Nair men, The Malabar Marriage Act, 1896 (Act IV of 1896) succeeded to alter by statute, the personal law of the Hindu matrilineal castes of Malabar and South Canara districts of the erstwhile Madras Presidency. It was a permissive legislation that made it possible for people following marumakkathayam and aliyasantana law (matrilineal law) to register their marriages, if they so wished. The Act enabled people to be legally married, something that was not possible under matrilineal law as interpreted in the colonial civil courts. Similar legislations in the southern parts followed much later as is evidenced by Travancore Nair Act of 1912, 1925, and the Cochin Nair Act of 1920.

[edit] Current Ceremonies and Customs

Nair have customs and rituals which are an amalgamation of indigenous rituals and the rituals of Nambothiri Brahmins. Generally, there are local variations for such customs. However, the basic framework of many of the rituals is more or less the same.

[edit] Vivaham (Marriage)

Thaalikettu

Presently the Nairs do not practice either of the three forms of marriages described above but perform Vivaham (Marriage) recognized by the Hindu Marriage act of 1955. It is ceremonially the shortest in comparison to its counterparts from other Indian castes and regions. The marriage ceremony among Nairs has changed considerably over the past one hundred years.

Vivaha Nischayam (Betrothal)/Jathakam Koda - The first ceremony is the Vivaha Nischayam or simply Nischayam.[57] After both the families consent to the marriage, the elders of the bride and the bridegroom assemble at the bride's home and an astrologer is consulted to set an auspicious date for the wedding. Horoscopes which have been already compared and approved are exchanged during this ceremony. During the celebration, there may be a mothiram maattal (ring exchange) ceremony. This ceremony may also be conducted later, during the actual vivaham ceremony.

Kalyanam (Marriage) - The marriage venue will be usually at the place of the bride. It may take place in a kalyana mandapam (a hall rented for the occasion) or in the padinjatta (principal/western room of the bride´s house, where religious ceremonies are conducted)[57], or in a pandal erected on the foreground of the house, or in a temple. The marriage proceeds through distinct ritualistic steps as described below.

Dakshina Kodukkal - Both the bride and bridegroom get the blessings of the elders by giving "Dakshina" consisting of a betel leaf, a ripe arecanut and a coin and then touching their feet. The marriage ceremony starts with this ritual that is carried out in their respective homes. Thereafter the The bridegroom and party leaves for the venue of the marriage.

Varavelppu - In this ritual, the bride's family receives the groom's family at the entrance of the venue of marriage, to the tune of nadaswarams (long wind-instruments). The groom stands on a wooden plank while the bride's younger brother washes his feet. The bride's aunts (wives of maternal uncles) perform aarti for the groom with a platter on which are arranged wicks made of twisted cotton. The groom is then escorted to the mandapam (platform constructed to perform the wedding rites) by two rows of young girls. One girl carries the changala vatta (sacred oil lamp), while another carries the ashtamangaliyam (eight articles signifying marriage). The girls following the first two, carry the taala poli (platters of rice, turmeric, and flowers on which oil lamps lit in the broken half of a coconut are placed). With his parents on either side, the groom follows the girls around the mandapam and seats himself on the right side of the canopy, which is decorated by flowers, fabric, palm fronds, and banana stalks.

Thaali-kettu (Tying the thaali) - The bride is now escorted by her aunt or mother to the mandapam to the sound of the nadaswarams and is made to stand facing to the east, with the groom facing her. At the auspicious moment set by the astrologer for the muhurtham (the most auspicious time), the groom ties the golden 'thaali' which is strung from a yellow thread around the bride's neck and this is accompanied by a special beating of drums (Ketti melam) and the ceremonial ululating sounds made by women (Vai Kurava). Sometimes the actual tying of the knot of the Thaali thread is done by the sister of the bridegroom if needed. [57]

Vastradanam/Pudavakoda (Gift of cloth) - After the tying of the thaali, the groom gifts the bride a sari and a blouse on a platter. He may also give her betel leaves and areca nuts. This signifies that he will now assume the responsibility of providing for her. The groom's mother also gifts the bride with some jewelry at this time. This custom is reminiscent of the Podamuri during the sambandham ritual.

Maala maattal (Exchange of garlands) or Maala Ideel - The couple then exchange garlands accepting each other as life partners. The bride's father then places the bride's hand in the groom's, thus handing over his daughter to the groom in holy matrimony.[57]

Madhuram Kodukkal - The bride's mother gives a glass of sweetened milk and a plantain fruit to the bridegroom and both the bridegroom and the bride share the milk and the fruit.

Sadya (feast) - After the blessings, the whole party is invited to take part in a strictly vegetarian feast. Rice and other dishes and curries like Parippu with ghee, Sambhar, Kaalan, Moru, Avial, two or three Thorans, Inchikkari, Naranga Uppilittathu, Kadumanga, Nellikka Achar, Nenthrakkai Upperi, Chena Upperi, Chembu Upperi, Sharkara Puratti, Valiya Pappadam, Cheriya Pappadam and sweet dishes like Ada Prathaman, Palada Prathaman, Semiya Payasam, Payattu (Parippu) Prathaman, and Palppayasam are served on Banana Leaf according to a well-set schedule.

Kudi Veppu (Entering the bridegrooms house) - This ritual involves the first entry of the newly wed in to the bridegroom's house. The groom's mother and elder female relatives perform aarti with an oil lamp (which rests on a platter heaped with rice mixed with turmeric) and receive them at the entrance. Both bride and groom enter the house, right foot forward. The bride carries the lit oil lamp that her mother-in-law gives her after arthi, symbolizing prosperity.[57]

Adukkala Kaanal (Seeing of the Kitchen)/Nallavaathil - This is the official visit of the bride's parents and relatives to the house of the bridegroom after the marriage on a mutually decided date. Some gifts are exchanged during this customary visit and there will be a grand feast. As the name of the custom suggests, the girl's parents see and get satisfied with the environment of the new house into which their daughter is married. This is the concluding custom related to the marriage ceremony of Nairs.

[edit] Seemantham/Pulikudi

Seemantham (also known as Pulikudi or Garbhamthozhikkal) denotes the preparation for childbirth and is performed between the fifth and seventh months of pregnancy. On an auspicious day, after being massaged with homemade ayurvedic oil, the woman has a customary bath with the help of the elderly women in the family. After this, the family deity is worshipped, invoking all the paradevatas and a concoction of herbal medicines prepared in the traditional way, is given to the woman. The woman is dressed in new clothes and jewelry used for such occasions. Among some Nairs of Malabarm two local ritualistic additions called ariyidal and Garbha Prashnam are performed. In the ariyidal the seated pregnant lady is given rice and appams in her lap. In the Garbha Prashnam, an astrologer prescribes ritualistic remedies (if needed) for the protection of the mother and child as well as for smooth child birth in the event of any astrological obstacles. Afterwards, the pregnant lady visits four temples, including her own ancestral temple and prays to the deities for a healthy child and for a smooth delivery. After this she begins to observe Pula or birth pollution, which extends up to 15 days after childbirth. The family then holds a feast for all the relatives. Medicines and routines are prescribed for the woman, which are to be followed till childbirth.

[edit] Feeding Thenum Vayampum to the Newborn

Just after the birth, the new born baby is fed a little bit of a concoction made of Honey and Vayampu (A herbal medicine known in Sanskrit as Vacha and in Latin as Acorus Calamus) into which some gold from a clean and pure golden ornament or ring is added by rubbing on a stone. This is given to the baby with the help of a piece of cotton dipped into the concoction.

[edit] Irupathi Ettu Kettu or Aranjanam Kettal

This ceremony is performed on the 28thth day after birth of the child, as this is the first time the nakshatram (star) of the child repeats according to the Malayalam calendar. During the ceremony, charadu (thread), one in black cotton and the other a chain in gold are interwined and tied around the waist of the child. This thread is called 'Aranjanam'. The child's eyes are lined with mayye or kanmashi (Kohl). A black spot is placed on one cheek or asymmetrically on the forehead, to ward off the evil eyes. A mixture of ghee (melted and clarified butter) and honey is given to the infant as a base for its various foods in the future. This is similar to the Jaathakarmam ceremony of the Namboothiris. The naming is done usually by the grand father of the child. The baby is taken on to the lap and a betel leaf is placed over the left ear of the baby and the name is called three times secretly into the right ear. Thereafter the name is publicly announced. Then other immediate relatives also call the name to the ear of the baby likewise in turn. In certain areas, the child's horoscope is usually made in between the birth and the Irupethi Ettu, so that a name based on an ideal first letter prescribed by the horoscope can be used to name the child. This name-giving ceremony is similar to the Naamakaranam ceremony of the Namboothiris. In some instances, piercing of the lower lobes of the ears for both boys and girls (Karnavedham) is also done on the same day. Otherwise, it is done separately on an auspicious day. Unlike the Namboothiris who perform Jaathakarmam and Namakaranam as separate rituals, Nairs mostly tend to perform them together on the Irupathi Ettu Kettu day.

[edit] Choroonu


Choroonu is the ritual of feeding rice to the child for the first time. Rice is the primary food of Nairs, which is why the first intake of purified rice is celebrated on an auspicious day. After manthrams are chanted to request Agni to purify the food, a mixture of melted ghee and honey, followed by boiled rice is served to the child. This ceremony is performed during the 6th month or after the 7th month of birth.

[edit] Thulamasakkuli

During the Malayalam month of Thulam (October - November) all the women and girls in the family bathe in the river or family pond before sunrise. They will then perform rituals of worship at home, or visit a temple for Nirmalyam (viewing the deity for the first time for the day).

[edit] Thiruvathirakkali

Thiruvathira is observed on the full-moon day of Dhanu Masam, on the day of the Thiruvathira star (Alpha Orionis). It is believed this is the day, the Goddess Parvathi finally met Siva, after her long penance. It is believed that observing Thiruvathira vratham or Thiruvathira nonbu (fasting during thiruvathira) would ensure that a woman's husband would have a long life. The Nair women, including little girls, would get up early in the morning during the whole of Dhanu masam and go to the Kulam or river to take a bath. They will go in a sort of procession, singing various songs. They sing and play while taking bath. This is called Thudichukkuli. After bathing, they go to the temple dressed in their finest clothes. Thiruvathira is a day of fasting. No one eats rice preparations, but they are allowed to eat things made of wheat and all types of fruit. The practice of presenting bunches of bananas to the elders was common. During this season, huge swings (oonjal) are erected in the backyards of most of the houses. These swings are hung from the branches of tall trees such as mango trees or jack-fruit trees. The swings are made of ropes hung from the branch with a wooden plank for the seat. They can also be made from a well grown bamboo tree shoot, which is vertically split into two. After lunch, the Thiruvathirakkali danced would be performed. The accompanying songs (Thiruvathirapaattu) are written in Malayalam and are set in a specific meter. The dance is also called Kaikotti Kali (dancing while clapping hands) and is also performed during the festival of Onam.

[edit] Poorakkali

Pooram means "festival" in Malyalam. In regions south of Korapuzha, this is mainly a temple celebration. However in regions north of Korapuzha, especially north Malabar, Pooram is predominantly a Nair household festival during the month of Meenam (March-April). The festival lasts for 9 days, starting from Karthika day to Pooram day. Among unmarried Nair women of north Malabar, Pooram was celebrated to praise and please Kamadeva, the God of Love. On each of the day an idol of Kamadeva made out of clay, is worshipped at different locations starting from the steps of the pond (first day) to the inner house (ninth day). The song sung by the group leader is repeated by the others and the song begins Thekkan dikkil povalle kamaa. Eendola panayil iruthume kamaa. (Do not leave us and go the south and various reasons are provided as to why he will be treated better in the north. These are sung in the form of puns). Dances are performed around a sacred lamp with elegant steps resembling thiruvathirakkali. While dancing, the players clap their hands uniformly to the tune of the song and to the thaalam (rhythm or beat) of the group leader. Poorakkali has 18 different forms.

Stories from the epic Ramayana often constitute the subject matter of the ritual songs. The ritual dance form warrants intense training and good physical stamina. The forward and backward movements and the abrupt variations in the speed and directions enthralls the spectators. Invariably, Poorakkali is followed by a duel of wits staged to test the intellectual capacity of the rival group leaders. This is known as Marathukali. During the debate, intriguing questions are put by one leader to the other side.

In central and south Kerala, several poorams or festivities during this season are observed in all important temples of the different deshams. The most famous of all these, is the Thrissur Pooram. Before the advent of the Thrissur Pooram, the largest temple festival during summer in central Kerala was the one-day festival held at Aarattupuzha. Temples in and around Thrissur were regular participants of this religious exercise until they were once denied entry by the responsible chief of the Peruvanam area of Cherpu, known for its Namboothiri supremacy. As an act of reprisal, and also in a bid to assuage their wounded feelings, Prince Rama Varma (1751-1805), also known as Sakthan Thampuran (ruler of the erstwhile Cochin state ) invited all these temples to bring their deities to Thrissur where they could pay obeisance to Lord Vadakunnathan, the deity of the Vadakunnathan temple. Further, he directed the main temples of Thrissur, Thruvambadi and Pamamekkavu, to extend all help and support to these temples. It is this historical background that determined the course of the Thrissur Pooram program and it is specifically because of the ruler's antipathy to the Brahmin aristocracy, that he opened Thrissurpooram to the common man[citation needed].

[edit] Caste System

Kerala, referred to as a "lunatic asylum of caste" by Swami Vivekananda, had a system of untouchability and caste discrimination that was not seen in other parts of the subcontinent. The Nairs, along with the Nambudiri Brahmins played a major role in upholding this system.

"Their [Nair] submission to superiors was great; but they exacted deference from those under them with a cruelty, and arrogance, rarely practised but among Hindus in their state of independence"

"A Nair was expected to instantly cut down a Tiar, or Mucua, who presumed to defile him by touching his person; and a similar fate awaited a slave, who did not turn out of the road as a Nair passed"[58]

Fortunately, especially after Indian Independence in 1947, the rigid caste barriers upheld by the Nairs began to break down. Today, Kerala is known for communal harmony and a lower level of caste violence than in other parts of India.

[edit] Socio-political Movements among Nairs


A number of socio-religious reform movements, which were also the earliest democratic mass movements in Kerala, took shape from late 1800 s.The Nairs also felt the need for reform in response to such changes. Throughout the medieval period and until well into the 19th century, the Nairs had a pre-eminent role in Kerala. By the middle of the 19th century, however, this dominance started waning. Institutions like the sambandham and the matrilineal joint family system which had ensured the strength of the Nair community earlier, now became productive of many evils in changing socio-political background of Kerala. The impact of the market economy, the disappearance of traditional military training, the absorption of new values through the new system of education, the self-consciousness being generated among the lower castes and their cry for equality and privileges - all these factors brought about a decline of Nair dominance. The sense of decline gave an impetus to the spirit of reform that expressed itself in the work of religious men like Chattambi Swamikal, in literature, on the press and platform and later in legislative enactments in respect of marriage, inheritance, property rights, etc. Ultimately, the movements crystallized in the foundation of the Nair Service Society, in 1914.

The Nair Service Society (NSS) is an organization created for the upliftment and welfare of the Nair community. It is headquartered at Perunna in the town of Changanassery in Kottayam District, Kerala State, India. It was established under the leadership of Mannathu Padmanabhan. The NSS is a three tier organisation with Karayogams at the base level, Taluk Unions at the intermediate level and the Headquarters at the apex level.

The Society owns and manages a large number of educational institutions and hospitals. These include the NSS College of Engineering at Palakkad, NSS Hindu College at Changanassery, NSS College at Pandalam, Mahatma Gandhi College at Thiruvananthapuram, SVRVNSS College at Vazhoor, Pazhassi Raja NSS College at Mattanur, Kannur and the Women's College at Niramankara, Thiruvananthapuram.The N.S.S runs more than hundred schools, 15 Arts and Science colleges, 3 Training colleges, 1 Engineering college, 1 Homoeo Medical College, several Nursing Colleges, Polytechnic college, T.T.C Schools, Working Women Hostels and Technical institutions.

Taking the lead given by Mannathu Padmanabhan, expatriate Nairs both in other startes of India as well as in countries other than India have formed Nair Service Societies in their states and countries of domicile. Examples are Karnataka Nair Service Society with 21 karayogams in Bangalore, and the Calcutta Nair Service Society in Kolkata. These Societies of Non Kerala origin retain the cultural uniqueness of the Nairs at the same time adapting many practices to the times and country of their adoption. Efforts are on to bring together all Nair groups the world over under an umbrella " International Federation of Nair Societies

കേരളത്തിലെ 14 ജില്ലകള്‍ ..............

Kasaragod (Malayalam:കാസര്‍ഗോഡ് ജില്ല) is one of the districts of the Indias state of Kerala. Kasragod district was organised as a separate district, on 24 May1985. It forms the northernmost end of Kerala. To its south lies Kannur District and to the north, Dakshina Kannada district of Karnataka state. All along its west it is walled by the Western Ghats while along the east the Arabian Sea borders it. The district, covering an area of around 1992 sq km, has a population (2001 census) of 1,203,342, and has two taluks, namely, Kasaragod and Hosdurg both being municipalities as well; seventy-five villages; thirty-nine panchayats. The district is further sub-divided into four administrative segments called development blocks, namely, Manjeshwar, Kasargod, Kanhangad, and Nileshwar. Like other districts of Kerala, Kasaragod district too has a high literacy rate, around 85.17%. The Malayalam spoken here has influences from Tulu, Kannada, Urdu, Konkani etc. People from southern Kerala generally find it difficult to understand the Malayalam spoken here.
Kasaragod district has Arabian sea to the west and Western ghats to the east.

Kannur District (Malayalam: കണ്ണൂര്‍) or Cannanore District is one of the 14 districts in the state of Kerala, India. The town of Kannur is the district headquarters, and gives the district its name. The old name 'Cannanore' is the anglicised form of the Malayalam name Kannur. Kannur District is bounded by Kasaragod District to the north and Kozhikode District to the south. To the east the district is bounded by the Western Ghats range, which forms the border with Karnataka state, in its districts of Kodagu and Chamarajanagar. The Arabian Sea lies to the west.
Kannur is the most urbanised district in Kerala having more than 50% people living in urban areas. Kannur has an urban population of 1,212,898 which is second largest in Kerala after Ernakulam district.
Kannur District is known as the land of looms and lores, because of the number of looms functioning in the district and festivals held in temples. The district is a major centre of Theyyam, a ritual dance of northern Kerala, and small shrines known as kavus associated with the Theyyam dot the district. Kannur is also known for the relatively high level of political violence that occurs in the district, mainly involving CPI(M) activists against perceived rival political opposition and their supporters[1].
The district is set to have a new international airport, the fourth in Kerala.

Kozhikode District is a district of Kerala state, situated on the southwest coast of India. The city of Kozhikode, also known as Calicut, is the district headquarters. This is the third-most advanced district in Kerala. It is 38.25% urbanised. [1]
The district is bounded by the districts of Kannur to the north, Wayanad to the east, and Malappuram to the south, and by the Arabian Sea in the west. It is situated between latitudes 11° 08'N and 11° 50'N and longitudes 75° 30'E and 76° 8'E.
The district is divided into three taluks, Vadakara, Koyilandy, and Kozhikode.

Wayanad District, in the north-east of Kerala, India, was formed on November 1, 1980 as the 12th district, carved out of Kozhikode District and Kannur District. Though the word Wayanad is believed by some to have originated from Vayal (paddy) and Naad (land), 'Land of Paddy Fields', some scholars disagree. The region was known as Mayakshetra (Maya's land) in the earliest records. Mayakshetra evolved into Mayanad and finally to Wayanad. There are many indigenous tribals in this area. It is set high on the majestic Western Ghats with altitudes ranging from 700 to 2100 m. The district is going through its worst agrarian crisis.

Malappuram District is a district of Kerala state in southern India. The district headquarters is at Malappuram.
The district has a population of 3,625,471 (2001 census), and an area of 3550 km², with a population density of 1,022 persons per km². It was formed on June 16, 1969.

Palakkad District (Malayalam :പാലക്കാട് ) or Palghat is one of the 14 districts of Kerala state in South India. The city of Palakkad is the district headquarters. Palakkad is bordered on the northwest by the Malappuram District and on the southwest by the Thrissur District. To the east lies the Coimbatore District of Tamil Nadu. It is a predominantly rural district. Palakkad is the gateway to Kerala due to the presence of Palakkad Gap, in the Western Ghats. The total area of the district is 4480 km² which is 11.5% of the state's area. The district is nicknamed as the granary of Kerala.
In the earlier times Palakkad was also known as Palakkattussery. Some etymologists trace the word "Palakkad" to be from the word Palanilam which means "dry lands". The commonly held belief however is that, it is the fusion of the two Malayalam words, Pala a tree (Alstonia scholaris) which is found abundantly in Palakkad and Kadu which means forest.
The district is 13.62% urbanised. [1]

Thrissur ( Trichur / Trissur) (Malayalam: തൃശ്ശൂര്‍) is a district situated in the central part of Kerala state, India. Thrissur district was formed in July 1, 1949. The headquarters of the district has the same name, Thrissur City. It is an important cultural center, and is known as the "Cultural Capital of Kerala". It is famous for the Thrissur Pooram festival, the most colourful and spectacular temple festival of Kerala. It has a large number of well known temples around, including Guruvayur, Thriprayar, Kodungaloor and Irinjalakkuda.

Ernakulam District (Malayalam: എറണാകുളം ) is a district of the state of Kerala in southern India. The district headquarters are at Kakkanad. The district includes the city of Kochi, an important seaport.

Idukki district (Malayalam :ഇടുക്കി ) is one among the 14 districts of Kerala state, India. The district headquarters is located at Kuyilimala (earlier it was at Painavu).

Kottayam (Malayalam: കോട്ടയം) is one of the 14 districts in the state of Kerala, India. The district has its headquarters at Kottayam town, located at 9.36° N and 76.17° E. According to the 1991 census, Kottayam District of Kerala is the first district to achieve highest literacy rate in the whole of India.
Bordered by the lofty and mighty Western Ghats on the east and the Vembanad Lake and paddy fields of Kuttanad on the west, Kottayam is a land of unique characteristics. Panoramic backwater stretches, lush paddy fields, highlands, hills and hillocks, extensive rubber plantations, places associated with many legends and a totally literate people have given Kottayam District the enviable title: The land of letters, legends, latex and lakes. Kottayam town is the first town in India to have achieved 100% literacy (a remarkable feat achieved as early as in 1989). The district is 15.35% urbanised.[1]



Pathanamthitta
Coordinates: 9°16′N 76°47′E / 9.27, 76.78
Time zone
IST (UTC+5:30)
Headquarters
Pathanamthitta
Population• Density
1,234,016• 574/km² (1,487/sq mi)
ISO abbreviation
IN-KL-
Coordinates: 9°16′N 76°47′E / 9.27, 76.78 Pathanamthitta is one of the fourteen districts of Kerala state in South India. It was formed on 1 November 1982 with headquarters at Pathanamthitta.
Pathanamthitta is a landlocked district situated in the southern part of the state, and is bordered by Kottayam and Idukki districts in the north, Alappuzha in the west, Kollam in the south and has a border with Tamil Nadu in the east. The district was made up from combining areas from the Alappuzha, Idukki and Kollam districts.
The district is part of the historical Central Travancore region of Kerala. The Central Travancore consists of the South-Central districts of Pathanamthitta and (parts of) Kottayam, Alappuzha, Idukky and Kollam.
Major towns in the district are Pathanamthitta, Thiruvalla, Aranmula, Kozhencherry, Kumbanad, Konni, Pandalam, Adoor, Ranni, Vadaserikara, Sabarimala, Mallappally and Parumala. More than 50% of the district is covered by forests.
The district's name is a combination of two Malayalam words pathanam and thitta, which together mean "houses by the riverside".
Pathanamthitta is a pre-dominantly agricultural district with major crops being coconut, rubber, paddy, pepper and tea. The hilly terrain coupled with high humidity make it suitable for rubber and tea plantations.
Hydroelectric power plants situated in the district provide one-third of the electricity demands of the state. Three important rivers, the Achankovil River, Manimala River and Pamba River flow through the district. River Pamba originates from Sabarimala and is considered a holy river. It is considered as the Ganga of South India.
Pathanamthitta holds the distinction of being declared the first polio-free district in India. It is 10.03% urbanised. [1]
Kerala's first Airport in private sector is developing in Aranmula, near Kozhencherry in this directory by promoted by FOKANA, and other US-Canada Malayali organizations and Middle-East based Malayalis.

Alappuzha (Malayalam:ആലപ്പുഴ ), also known as Alleppey, is a town in Alappuzha District of Kerala state of southern India. A town with picturesque canals, backwaters, beaches, and lagoons, it was described as the List of places known as Venice of the East by Lord Curzon. It is the administrative headquarters of Alappuzha District. Alleppey has a wonderful past. Though the present town owes its existence to the sagacious Diwan Raja Kesavadas in the second half of 18th century, district of Alappuzha figures in classical Literature. Kuttanad, the rice bowl of Kerala with the unending stretch of paddy fields, small streams and canals with lush green coconut palms , was well known even from the early periods of the Sangam age. History says Alappuzha had trade relations with ancient Greece and Rome in B.C and in the Middle Ages, as well as with other parts of India. Alappuzha has a lighthouse, which is a major tourist attraction.

Kollam (Malayalam:കൊല്ലം ) (known to the Portuguese as Quilon, pronounced koy-lon) is a city and a municipal corporation in Kollam district in the Indian state of Kerala. It lies 71 Kilometres north of the state capital Thiruvanathapuram (Trivandrum). It is also the headquarters of the Kollam District, one among the 14 districts in the state of Kerala. It is bound on the south by Thiruvananthapuram district, on the north by Pathanamthitta and Alappuzha, on the east by Tamil Nadu and on the west by the Arabian Sea. The town is very famous for cashew processing and coir manufacturing. It is the southern gateway to the backwaters of Kerala, and thus, a prominent tourist destination.
Kollam was formerly called "Desinganadu". During the rule of the Travancore kingdom in southern Kerala, Kollam was the focal point of trade. The start of the Malayalam era(ME) is associated with Kollam.[1][2] It is believed that the era was started by Nestorian Christian merchants who settled in KorukeNi kollam, near to the present Kollam.[3] The ME is also referred as Kollavarsham.

Thiruvananthapuram District is the southernmost district of the Indian state of Kerala. The headquarters is in the city of Thiruvananthapuram (Trivandrum) which is also the capital city of Kerala.
The district has an area of 2192 km², and a population of 3,234,356 (as per the 2001 census), the second largest in Kerala. It is divided into four talukas: Thiruvananthapuram, Chirayinkil, Nedumangad, and Neyyattinkara. The urban bodies in the district are the Thiruvananthapuram Corporation, Attingal, Neyyattinkara, Varkala and Nedumangad municipalities.
Thiruvananthapuram literally means City of Lord Anantha. The name derives from the deity of the Hindu temple at the centre of the city. Anantha is the mythical thousand hooded serpent- Shesha on whom Padmanabhan or Vishnu reclines. The temple of Vishnu reclining on Anantha, the Sri Padmanabhaswamy temple, which dates back to the 16th century, is the most recognizable iconic landmark of the city as well as the district. Along with the presiding deity of Sri Padmanabha, this temple also has temples inside it, dedicated to Lord Krishna and Lord Narasimha, Lord Ganesha, and Lord Ayyappa.
The city was the capital of the Travancore state before the independence. Consequent to the recommendations of the state Reorganisation Commission, the Vilavancode taluk from Thiruvananthapuram was merged with Tamil Nadu along with three other southern taluks of Thovala, Agastheewaram and Kalkulam from Travancore and the state of Kerala came into being on 1 November 1956.
One of the other major landmarks in the district is the Government Secretariat. This white coloured building that was built by the Kings of Travancore is the seat of power. The central Durbar hall was where the assembly used to meet during the imperial rule. Less than a mile away, complementing this gothic structure, stands the modern legislature complex, the largest legislature building in India.
The district is 33.75% urbanised. [1]

കേരളീയം

kerala കേരളം (is a state on the tropical Malabar Coast of southwestern India. To its east and northeast, Kerala borders Tamil Nadu and Karnataka; to its west and south lie the Indian Ocean islands of Lakshadweep and the Maldives, respectively. Kerala nearly envelops Mahé, a coastal exclave of Pondicherry. Kerala is one of four states that compose the linguistic-cultural region known as South India. The principal spoken language is Malayalam, but other languages are also spoken.
First settled in the 10th century BC by speakers of Proto-South Dravidian, Kerala was influenced by the Mauryan Empire. Later, the Cheran kingdom and feudal Namboothiri Brahminical city-states became major powers in the region.[1] Early contact with overseas lands culminated in struggles between colonial and native powers. The States Reorganisation Act of 1 November 1956 elevated Kerala to statehood.
Social reforms enacted in the late 19th century by Cochin and Travancore were expanded upon by post-independence governments, making Kerala among the Third World's longest-lived, healthiest, most gender-equitable, and most literate regions.[2][3] Though the state's basic human development indices are roughly equivalent to those in the developed world, the state is substantially more environmentally sustainable than Europe and North America.[4][5] Nevertheless, Kerala's suicide, alcoholism, and unemployment rates rank among India's highest.[6] A survey conducted in 2005 by Transparency International ranked Kerala as the least corrupt state in the country.[7]
The widely disputed etymology of Kerala is a matter of conjecture. In the prevailing theory, Kerala is an imperfect Malayalam portmanteau that fuses kera ("coconut palm tree") and alam ("land" or "location").[8] Another theory is that the name originated from the phrase chera alam ("Land of the Chera").[9] Natives of Kerala, known as Keralites or Malayalees, thus refer to their land as Keralam. Kerala's tourism industry, among others, also use the phrase God's Own Country.[10]

History
Main article: History of Kerala

Lord Parshuram with settlers commanding Lord Varuna to make the seas recede to make the Kerala.
According to a legend, Parasurama, an avatar of Mahavishnu, threw his battle axe into the sea. As a result, the land of Kerala arose and was reclaimed from the waters.[11] During Neolithic times, humans largely avoided Kerala's rainforests and wetlands. There is evidence of the emergence of prehistoric pottery and granite burial monuments in the 10th century BC that resemble their counterparts in Western Europe and the rest of Asia. These were produced by speakers of a proto-Tamil language.[12] Thus, Kerala and Tamil Nadu once shared a common language, ethnicity and culture; this common area was known as Tamilakam. Kerala became a linguistically separate region by the early 14th century. The ancient Cherans, whose mother tongue and court language was Tamil, ruled Kerala from their capital at Vanchi and was the first major recorded kingdom. Allied with the Pallavas, they continually warred against the neighbouring Chola and Pandya kingdoms. A Keralite identity—distinct from the Tamils and associated with the second Chera empire—and the development of Malayalam evolved between the 8th and 14th centuries. In written records, Kerala was first mentioned in the Sanskrit epic Aitareya Aranyaka. Later, figures such as Katyayana, Patanjali, Pliny the Elder, and the unknown author of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea displayed familiarity with Kerala.[13]

Muniyaras (Keralite dolmens or megalithic tombs) in Marayoor, erected by Neolithic tribesmen.

The Knanaya Syrian Orthodox Valia Palli (St. Mary’s Church) in Thazhathangadi, Kottayam. Built in 1550 AD, it hosts an 8th-century Persian cross and Sassanid Pahlavi inscriptions.
The Chera kings' dependence on trade meant that merchants from West Asia and Southern Europe established coastal posts and settlements in Kerala.[14][15] Many, especially Jews and Christians, escaped persecution and established the Nasrani Mappila and Muslim Mappila communities.[16] According to several scholars, the Jews first arrived in Kerala in 573 BC.[17][18] The works of scholars and Eastern Christian writings state that Thomas the Apostle visited Muziris in Kerala in 52 AD to proselytize amongst Kerala's Jewish settlements.[19][20] However, the first verifiable migration of Jewish-Nasrani families to Kerala is of the arrival of Knai Thoma in 345 AD.α[›][21] Muslim merchants (Malik ibn Dinar) settled in Kerala by the 8th century AD. After Vasco Da Gama's arrival in 1498, the Portuguese gained control of the lucrative pepper trade by subduing Keralite communities and commerce.[22][23]
Conflicts between the cities of Kozhikode (Calicut) and Kochi (Cochin) provided an opportunity for the Dutch to oust the Portuguese. In turn, the Dutch were ousted at the 1741 Battle of Colachel by Marthanda Varma of Travancore (Thiruvathaamkoor). Hyder Ali, heading the Mysore, conquered northern Kerala, capturing Kozhikode in 1766. In the late 18th century, Tipu Sultan, Ali’s son and successor, launched campaigns against the expanding British East India Company; these resulted in two of the four Anglo-Mysore Wars. He ultimately ceded Malabar District and South Kanara to the Company in the 1790s. The Company then forged tributary alliances with Kochi (1791) and Travancore (1795). Malabar and South Kanara became part of the Madras Presidency.[24]

Memorial of Veera Pazhassi Raja (the "Lion of Kerala") in Mananthavady, Wayanad. Pazhassi Raja launched a guerilla war against the British in the late 18th century.
Kerala saw comparatively little defiance of the British Raj. Nevertheless, several rebellions occurred, including the 1946 Punnapra-Vayalar revolt,[25] and leaders like Velayudan Thampi Dalava, Kunjali Marakkar, and Pazhassi Raja earned their place in history and folklore. Many actions, spurred by such leaders as Sree Narayana Guru and Chattampi Swamikal, instead protested such conditions as untouchability; notable was the 1924 Vaikom Satyagraham. In 1936, Chitra Thirunal Bala Rama Varma of Travancore issued the Temple Entry Proclamation that opened Hindu temples to all castes; Cochin and Malabar soon did likewise. The 1921 Moplah Rebellion involved Mappila Muslims battling Hindus and the British Raj.[26]
After India gained its independence in 1947, Travancore and Cochin were merged to form Travancore-Cochin on July 1, 1949. On January 1, 1950 (Republic Day), Travancore-Cochin was recognised as a state. The Madras Presidency was organised to form Madras State several years prior, in 1947. Finally, the Government of India's November 1, 1956 States Reorganisation Act inaugurated the state of Kerala, incorporating Malabar district, Travancore-Cochin (excluding four southern taluks, which were merged with Tamil Nadu), and the taluk of Kasargod, South Kanara.[27] A new legislative assembly was also created, for which elections were first held in 1957. These resulted in a communist-led government—one of the world's earliest—headed by E.M.S. Namboodiripad.[27][28] Subsequent social reforms favoured tenants and labourers.[29][30] As a result, living standards, education, and life expectancy improved dramatically.

Geography
Main article: Geography of Kerala

Rice paddies in the Wayanad countryside.
Kerala’s 38,863 km² landmass (1.18% of India) is wedged between the Arabian Sea to the west and the Western Ghats—identified as one of the world's twenty-five biodiversity hotspots[31]—to the east. Lying between north latitudes 8°18' and 12°48' and east longitudes 74°52' and 72°22',[32] Kerala is well within the humid equatorial tropics. Kerala’s coast runs for some 580 km (360 miles), while the state itself varies between 35 and 120 km (22–75 miles) in width. Geographically, Kerala can be divided into three climatically distinct regions: the eastern highlands (rugged and cool mountainous terrain), the central midlands (rolling hills), and the western lowlands (coastal plains). Located at the extreme southern tip of the Indian subcontinent, Kerala lies near the centre of the Indian tectonic plate; as such, most of the state is subject to comparatively little seismic and volcanic activity.[33] Pre-Cambrian and Pleistocene geological formations compose the bulk of Kerala’s terrain.

Eastern Kerala lies immediately west of the Western Ghats's rain shadow; it consists of high mountains, gorges and deep-cut valleys. 41 of Kerala’s west-flowing rivers, and 3 of its east-flowing ones originate in this region. Here, the Western Ghats form a wall of mountains interrupted only near Palakkad, where the Palakkad Gap breaks through to provide access to the rest of India. The Western Ghats rises on average to 1,500 m (4920 ft) above sea level, while the highest peaks may reach to 2,500 m (8200 ft). Just west of the mountains lie the midland plains composing central Kerala; rolling hills and valleys dominate.[32] Generally ranging between elevations of 250–1,000 m (820–3300 ft), the eastern portions of the Nilgiri and Palni Hills include such formations as Agastyamalai and Anamalai.

A cheena vala (fishing net) in the Backwaters region of Kollam.
Kerala’s western coastal belt is relatively flat, and is criss-crossed by a network of interconnected brackish canals, lakes, estuaries, and rivers known as the Kerala Backwaters. Lake Vembanad—Kerala’s largest body of water—dominates the Backwaters; it lies between Alappuzha and Kochi and is more than 200 km² in area. Around 8% of India's waterways (measured by length) are found in Kerala.[34] The most important of Kerala’s forty four rivers include the Periyar (244 km), the Bharathapuzha (209 km), the Pamba (176 km), the Chaliyar (169 km), the Kadalundipuzha (130 km) and the Achankovil (128 km). The average length of the rivers of Kerala is 64 km. Most of the remainder are small and entirely fed by monsoon rains.[32] These conditions result in the nearly year-round water logging of such western regions as Kuttanad, 500 km² of which lies below sea level. As Kerala's rivers are small and lack deltas, they are more prone to environmental factors. Kerala's rivers face many problems, including summer droughts, the building of large dams, sand mining, and pollution.

Climate
Main article: Climate of Kerala
With 120–140 rainy days per year, Kerala has a wet and maritime tropical climate influenced by the seasonal heavy rains of the southwest summer monsoon.[35] In eastern Kerala, a drier tropical wet and dry climate prevails. Kerala's rainfall averages 3,107 mm annually. Some of Kerala's drier lowland regions average only 1,250 mm; the mountains of eastern Idukki district receive more than 5,000 mm of orographic precipitation, the highest in the state.
In summers, most of Kerala is prone to gale force winds, storm surges, cyclone-related torrential downpours, occasional droughts, and rises in sea level and storm activity resulting from global warming.[36][37][38] Kerala’s maximum daily temperature averages 36.7 °C; the minimum is 19.8 °C.[32] Mean annual temperatures range from 25.0–27.5 °C in the coastal lowlands to 20.0–22.5 °C in the highlands.[39]

Flora and fauna
Main article: Flora and fauna of Kerala

A blue tiger (Tirumala limniace) butterfly.
Much of Kerala's notable biodiversity is concentrated and protected in the Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve in the eastern hills. Almost a fourth of India's 10,000 plant species are found in the state. Among the almost 4,000 flowering plant species (1,272 of which are endemic to Kerala and 159 threatened) are 900 species of highly sought medicinal plants.[40][41]

Petals of the gloriosa lily (Gloriosa superba) flower curve upward into a claw-like shape; below, its stamens grow radially outwards.

Monkey (Bonnet Macaque) seen in Nelliampathi mountains
Its 9,400 km² of forests include tropical wet evergreen and semi-evergreen forests (lower and middle elevations—3,470 km²), tropical moist and dry deciduous forests (mid-elevations—4,100 km² and 100 km², respectively), and montane subtropical and temperate (shola) forests (highest elevations—100 km²). Altogether, 24% of Kerala is forested.[42] Two of the world’s Ramsar Convention listed wetlands—Lake Sasthamkotta and the Vembanad-Kol wetlands—are in Kerala, as well as 1455.4 km² of the vast Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. Subjected to extensive clearing for cultivation in the 20th century,[43] much of Kerala's forest cover is now protected from clearfelling. Kerala's fauna are notable for their diversity and high rates of endemism: 102 species of mammals (56 of which are endemic), 476 species of birds, 202 species of freshwater fishes, 169 species of reptiles (139 of them endemic), and 89 species of amphibians (86 endemic).[41] These are threatened by extensive habitat destruction, including soil erosion, landslides, salinization, and resource extraction.[44]

The Bengal Tiger inhabits Kerala's eastern forests.
Eastern Kerala’s windward mountains shelter tropical moist forests and tropical dry forests, which are common in the Western Ghats. Here, sonokeling (Indian rosewood), anjili, mullumurikku (Erythrina), and Cassia number among the more than 1,000 species of trees in Kerala. Other plants include bamboo, wild black pepper, wild cardamom, the calamus rattan palm (a type of climbing palm), and aromatic vetiver grass (Vetiveria zizanioides).[42] Living among them are such fauna as Asian Elephant, Bengal Tiger, Leopard (Panthera pardus), Nilgiri Tahr, Common Palm Civet, and Grizzled Giant Squirrel.[42][45] Reptiles include the king cobra, viper, python, and crocodile. Kerala's birds are legion—Peafowl, the Great Hornbill, Indian Grey Hornbill, Indian Cormorant, and Jungle Myna are several emblematic species. In lakes, wetlands, and waterways, fish such as kadu (stinging catfish and Choottachi (Orange chromide—Etroplus maculatus; valued as an aquarium specimen) are found.[46]

Subdivisions
Main article: Districts of Kerala

A typical Kerala style house with Thulasi thara (platform for Holy Basil) in front.

Kerala's fourteen districts are distributed among Kerala's three historical regions: Malabar (northern Kerala), Kochi (central Kerala), and Travancore (southern Kerala). Kerala's modern-day districts (listed in order from north to south) correspond to them as follows:
Malabar: Kasaragod, Kannur, Wayanad, Kozhikode, Malappuram, Palakkad
Kochi: Thrissur, Ernakulam
Travancore: Kottayam, Idukki, Alappuzha, Pathanamthitta, Kollam, Thiruvananthapuram
Main article: Corporations, Municipalities and Taluks of Kerala
Moreover, Kerala's 14 revenue districts are further divided into 62 taluks, 1453 revenue villages and 1007 Gram panchayats.
Mahé, a part of the Indian union territory of Puducherry (Pondicherry), is a coastal exclave surrounded by Kerala on all of its landward approaches. Thiruvananthapuram (Trivandrum) is the state capital and most populous city.[47] Kochi is the most populous urban agglomeration[48] and the major port city in Kerala. Kozhikode and Thrissur are the other major commercial centres of the state. The High Court of Kerala is at Ernakulam. Kerala's districts, which serve as the administrative regions for taxation purposes, are further subdivided into 63 taluks; these have fiscal and administrative powers over settlements within their borders, including maintenance of local land records.

Government
Main article: Government of Kerala

The Legislative Assembly Building in Trivandrum.
Like other Indian states and most Commonwealth countries, Kerala is governed through a parliamentary system of representative democracy; universal suffrage is granted to state residents. There are three branches of government. The unicameral legislature, known as the legislative assembly, comprises elected members and special office bearers (the Speaker and Deputy Speaker) elected by assemblymen. Assembly meetings are presided over by the Speaker. The Assembly is presided over by the Deputy Speaker whenever the Speaker is absent. Kerala has 140 Assembly constituencies. The state sends 20 members to the Lok Sabha and 9 to the Rajya Sabha, the Indian Parliament's upper house.

The Kerala High Court in Ernakulam.
Like other Indian states, the constitutional head of state is the Governor of Kerala, who is appointed by the President of India. The executive authority is headed by the Chief Minister of Kerala, who is the de facto head of state and is vested with most of the executive powers; the Legislative Assembly's majority party leader is appointed to this position by the Governor. The Council of Ministers, which answers to the Legislative Assembly, has its members appointed by the Governor; the appointments receive input from the Chief Minister.
The judiciary comprises the Kerala High Court (including a Chief Justice combined with 26 permanent and two additional (pro tempore) justices) and a system of lower courts. The High Court of Kerala is the highest court for the state; it also decides cases from the Union Territory of Lakshadweep. Auxiliary authorities known as panchayats, for which local body elections are regularly held, govern local affairs.
The state's 2005–2006 budget was 219 billion INR.[49] The state government's tax revenues (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) amounted to 111,248 million INR in 2005, up from 63,599 million in 2000. Its non-tax revenues (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) of the Government of Kerala as assessed by the Indian Finance Commissions reached 10,809 million INR in 2005, nearly double the 6,847 million INR revenues of 2000.[50] However, Kerala's high ratio of taxation to gross state domestic product (GSDP) has not alleviated chronic budget deficits and unsustainable levels of government debt, impacting social services.[51]

Politics
Kerala hosts two major political alliances: the United Democratic Front (UDF—led by the Indian National Congress) and the Left Democratic Front (LDF—led by the Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI(M))). At present, the LDF is the ruling coalition in government; V.S. Achuthanandan of the CPI(M) is the Chief Minister of Kerala and Oommen Chandy of [United Democratic Front (India)UDF] is the Chief Opposition leader.

A CPI(M) rally in Ernakulam.
Kerala is one of the few regions in the world where communist parties are democratically elected in a parliamentary democracy. Compared with most other Indians, Keralites are well versed and keen participants in the political process; many elections are decided by razor-thin margins of victory. Strikes, protests, rallies, and marches are ubiquitous.[52]

Economy
Main article: Economy of Kerala

In the Backwaters, waterways are key thoroughfares for merchants selling fish, rice, and other products. Pictured is a waterway bordering a farm.
Since its incorporation as a state, Kerala's economy largely operated under welfare based democratic socialist principles. In recent years, the state has liberalised its increasingly mixed economy, allowing greater participation by the free market and foreign direct investment. Kerala's nominal gross domestic product (as of 2004–2005) is an estimated 89451.99 crore INR,[53] while recent GDP growth (9.2% in 2004–2005 and 7.4% in 2003–2004) has been robust compared to historical averages (2.3% annually in the 1980s and between 5.1%[54] and 5.99%[55] in the 1990s).[54] Nevertheless, relatively few major corporations and manufacturing plants choose to operate in Kerala.[56] This is mitigated by remittances sent home by overseas Keralites,[57] which contributes around 20% of state GDP.[58] Kerala's per capita GDP of 11,819 INR[59] is significantly higher than the all India average,[54] although it still lies far below the world average. Additionally, Kerala's Human Development Index and standard of living statistics are the nation's best.[60] This apparent paradox—high human development and low economic development—is often dubbed the Kerala phenomenon or the Kerala model of development,[61][62] and arises mainly from Kerala's strong service sector.

Tea gardens near Munnar, Idukki district.
The service sector (including tourism, public administration, banking and finance, transportation, and communications—63.8% of statewide GDP in 2002–2003) along with the agricultural and fishing industries (together 17.2% of GDP) dominate Kerala's economy.[55][63] Nearly half of Kerala's people are dependent on agriculture alone for income.[64] Some 600 varieties[31] of rice (Kerala's most important staple food and cereal crop[65]) are harvested from 3105.21 km² (a decline from 5883.4 km² in 1990[65]) of paddy fields; 688,859 tonnes are produced per annum.[64] Other key crops include coconut (899,198 ha), tea, coffee (23% of Indian production,[66] or 57,000 tonnes[67]), rubber, cashews, and spices—including pepper, cardamom, vanilla, cinnamon, and nutmeg. Around 1.050 million fishermen haul an annual catch of 668,000 tonnes (1999–2000 estimate); 222 fishing villages are strung along the 590 km coast. Another 113 fishing villages dot the hinterland.

Interior of the Technopark, Thiruvananthapuram.
Traditional industries manufacturing such items as coir, handlooms, and handicrafts employ around one million people. Around 180,000 small-scale industries employ around 909,859 Keralites; 511 medium and large scale manufacturing firms are located in Kerala. A small mining sector (0.3% of GDP)[63] involves extraction of ilmenite, kaolin, bauxite, silica, quartz, rutile, zircon, and sillimanite.[64] Home gardens and animal husbandry also provide work for hundreds of thousands of people. Other major sectors are tourism, manufacturing, and business process outsourcing. Kerala's unemployment rate is variously estimated at 19.2%[68] and 20.77%,[69] although underemployment of those classified as "employed", low employability of many job-seeking youths, and a mere 13.5% female participation rate are significant problems.[70][71][69] Estimates of the statewide poverty rate range from 12.71%[72] to as high as 36%.[73]

Transport
See also: Roads in Kerala

A bridge on the Marine Drive walkway in Kochi.
Kerala has 145,704 kilometers (90,539 mi) of roads (4.2% of India's total). This translates to about 4.62 kilometers (2.87 mi) of road per thousand population, compared to an all India average of 2.59 kilometers (1.61 mi). Virtually all of Kerala's villages are connected by road. Traffic in Kerala has been growing at a rate of 10–11% every year, resulting in high traffic and pressure on the roads. Kerala's road density is nearly four times the national average, reflecting the state's high population density. Kerala's annual total of road accidents is among the nation's highest.[74]

Trivandrum Central Railway Station.
India's national highway network includes a Kerala-wide total of 1,524 kilometers (947 mi), which is 2.6% of the national total. There are eight designated national highways in the state. The Kerala State Transport Project (KSTP), which includes the GIS-based Road Information and Management Project (RIMS), is responsible for maintaining and expanding the 1,600 kilometers (994 mi) of roadways that compose the state highways system; it also oversees major district roads.[75][76] Most of Kerala's west coast is accessible through two national highways, NH 47, and NH 17.
The state has major international airports at Thiruvananthapuram, Kochi, and Kozhikode that link the state with the rest of the nation and the world. The Cochin International Airport at Kochi is the first international airport in India that was built without Central Government funds, and is also the country's first publicly owned airport.[77] The backwaters traversing the state are an important mode of inland navigation. The Indian Railways' Southern Railway line runs throughout the state, connecting all major towns and cities except those in the highland districts of Idukki and Wayanad. Kerala's major railway stations are Trivandrum Central, Kollam Junction, Ernakulam Junction, Thrissur, Kozhikode, Shoranur Junction, and Palakkad.

Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Kerala

Most Keralites, such as this fisherman, live in rural areas.
The 31.8 million[78] of Kerala’s compound population is predominantly of Malayali Dravidian ethnicity, while the rest is mostly made up of Indo-Aryan, Jewish, and Arab elements in both culture and ancestry (both of which are usually mixed). Kerala is also home to 321,000 indigenous tribal Adivasis (1.10% of the populace), who are mostly concentrated in the eastern districts.[79][80] Malayalam is Kerala's official language; Tamil and various Adivasi languages are also spoken by ethnic minorities.

A Malayali woman wearing a sari

A Malayalee man wearing a Mundu with a shirt
Kerala is home to 3.44% of India's people; at 819 persons per km², its land is three times as densely settled as the rest of India.[81] Kerala's rate of population growth is India's lowest,[82] and Kerala's decadal growth (9.42% in 2001) is less than half the all-India average of 21.34%.[83] Whereas Kerala's population more than doubled between 1951 and 1991 by adding 15.6 million people to reach 29.1 million residents in 1991, the population stood at less than 32 million by 2001. Kerala's coastal regions are the most densely settled, leaving the eastern hills and mountains comparatively sparsely populated.[32]
Women compose 51.42% of the population.[84] Kerala's principal religions are Hinduism (56.1%), Islam (24.7%), and Christianity (19%).[85] Remnants of a once substantial Cochin Jewish population also practice Judaism. In comparison with the rest of India, Kerala experiences relatively little sectarianism.[86]

Rural women processing coir threads.
Kerala's society is less patriarchical than the rest of the Third World.[3][87] Gender relations are among the most equitable in India and the Third World[88], despite discrepancies among low caste men and women.[89] Certain Hindu communities (such as the Nairs), Travancore Ezhavas and the Muslims around Kannur used to follow a traditional matrilineal system known as marumakkathayam, although this practice ended in the years after Indian independence. Other Muslims, Christians, and some Hindu castes such as the Namboothiris and the Ezhavas follow makkathayam, a patrilineal system.[90]
Kerala's human development indices—elimination of poverty, primary level education, and health care—are among the best in India. Kerala has the second highest literacy rate (89.9%) among Indian states after Mizoram [91] and life expectancy (73 years) is among the highest in India.[92] Literacy is 88% among females and 94% among males according to the 2001 census. Kerala's rural poverty rate fell from 69% (1970–1971) to 19% (1993–1994); the overall (urban and rural) rate fell 36% between the 1970s and 1980s.[93] By 1999–2000, the rural and urban poverty rates dropped to 10.0% and 9.6% respectively.[94] These changes stem largely from efforts begun in the late 19th century by the kingdoms of Cochin and Travancore to boost social welfare.[95][96] This focus was maintained by Kerala's post-independence government.[60][62]

Health
Kerala's healthcare system has garnered international acclaim. UNICEF and the World Health Organization designating Kerala the world's first "baby-friendly state". Representative of this condition, more than 95% of Keralite births are hospital-delivered.[97] Aside from ayurveda (both elite and popular forms),[98] siddha, and unani, many endangered and endemic modes of traditional medicine, including kalari, marmachikitsa,[99] and vishavaidyam, are practiced. These propagate via gurukula discipleship,[100] and comprise a fusion of both medicinal and supernatural treatments,[101] and are partly responsible for drawing increasing numbers of medical tourists.

Lakeshore Hospital in Kochi.
A steadily aging population (11.2% of Keralites are over age 60[60]) and low birthrate[3] (18 per 1,000)[97] make Kerala one of the few regions of the Third World to have undergone the "demographic transition" characteristic of such developed nations as Canada, Japan, and Norway.[61] In 1991, Kerala's TFR (children born per women) was the lowest in India. Hindus had a TFR of 1.66, Christians 1.78, and Muslims 2.97.[102]
Kerala's female-to-male ratio (1.058) is significantly higher than that of the rest of India.[92][103] The same is true of its sub-replacement fertility level and infant mortality rate (estimated at 12[56][97] to 14[104] deaths per 1,000 live births). However, Kerala's morbidity rate is higher than that of any other Indian state—118 (rural Keralites) and 88 (urban) per 1,000 people. The corresponding all India figures are 55 and 54 per 1,000, respectively.[104] Kerala's 13.3% prevalence of low birth weight is substantially higher than that of First World nations.[97] Outbreaks of water-borne diseases, including diarrhoea, dysentery, hepatitis, and typhoid,[105] among the more than 50% of Keralites who rely on some 3 million[106] water wells[107] is another problem, which is worsened by the widespread lack of sewers.[107]

Education
See also: Colleges in Kerala

Children lining up for school in Kochi.
Schools and colleges in Kerala are either run by the government or by private trusts and individuals. The schools are each affiliated with either the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education (ICSE), the Central Board for Secondary Education (CBSE), or the Kerala State Education Board. English is the medium of instruction in most private schools; though government run schools offer both English and Malayalam. After completing their secondary education, which involves ten years of schooling, students typically enroll at Higher Secondary School in one of the three streams—liberal arts, commerce or science. Upon completing the required coursework, the student can enroll in general or professional degree programmes.

The University of Kerala's administrative building in Thiruvananthapuram.
Thiruvananthapuram is one of the state's major academic hubs; it hosts the University of Kerala. The city also has several professional education colleges, including fifteen engineering colleges, three medical colleges, three Ayurveda colleges, two colleges of homeopathy, six other medical colleges, and several law colleges.[108] Trivandrum Medical College, Kerala's premier health institute, is also one of the finest in the country. It is being upgraded to the status of an All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS). The College of Engineering, Trivandrum is one of the prominent engineering institutions in the country. The Asian School of Business and IIITM-K are two of the other premier management study institutions in the city, both situated inside Technopark. The Indian Institute of Space Technology, the unique and first of its kind in India, is situated in the state capital.
Kochi is another major educational hub. The Cochin University of Science and Technology (also known as "Cochin University") is situated in the city. Most of the city's colleges offering tertiary education are affiliated either with the Mahatma Gandhi University or Cochin University. Other national educational institutes in Kochi include the Central Institute of Fisheries Nautical and Engineering Training, the National University of Advanced Legal Studies, the National Institute of Oceanography and the Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute.
Thrissur can be called as the Educational Capital of Kerala as Coimbatore to Tamil Nadu. Kerala Agricultural University is situated in this city. Three Medical Colleges, The Government Engineering College, Govt. Law College, Ayurveda College, Govt.Fine Arts College, College of Co-operation & Banking and Management, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, College of Horticulture, College of Forestry etc make the name "Educational Capital" more meaningful. There are a lot of famous colleges like St.Thomas College, Sri Kerala Varma College, St.Mary's College, Vimala College etc. Thrissur is also a main center of coaching for the entrance examinations for engineering and medicine.
Kottayam also acts as a main educational hub. According to the 1991 census, Kottayam District of Kerala is the first district to achieve highest literacy rate in the whole of India. Mahatma Gandhi University, CMS College(the first institution to start English education in Southern India), Medical College, Kottayam, and the Labour India Educational Research Center are some of the important educational institutions in the district.
Kozhikode is home to two of the premier educational institutions in the country; the IIMK, one of the seven Indian Institutes of Management, and the only National Institute of Technology in Kerala, the NITC.
See also: Education in India

Culture
Main articles: Arts of Kerala and Culture of Kerala

A formation of gold-caparisoned elephants at the Thrissur Pooram. Poorams are Hindu temple-centered festivals popular among both Keralites and tourists.
Kerala's culture is a blend of Dravidian and Aryan influences, deriving from both a greater Tamil-heritage region known as Tamilakam and southern coastal Karnataka. Later, Kerala's culture was elaborated upon through centuries of contact with neighboring and overseas cultures.[109] Native performing arts include koodiyattom, kathakali—from katha ("story") and kali ("performance")—and its offshoot Kerala natanam, koothu (akin to stand-up comedy), mohiniaattam ("dance of the enchantress"), thullal, padayani, and theyyam.

A close-up of a kathakali artist.
Other forms of art are more religious or tribal in nature. These include chavittu nadakom, oppana (originally from Malabar), which combines dance, rhythmic hand clapping, and ishal vocalisations. However, many of these art forms largely play to tourists or at youth festivals, and are not as popular among most ordinary Keralites. These people look to more contemporary art and performance styles, including those employing mimicry and parody.
Kerala's music also has ancient roots. Carnatic music dominates Keralite traditional music. This was the result of Swathi Thirunal Rama Varma's popularisation of the genre in the 19th century.[110][111] Raga-based renditions known as sopanam accompany kathakali performances. Melam (including the paandi and panchari variants) is a more percussive style of music; it is performed at Kshetram centered festivals using the chenda. Melam ensembles comprise up to 150 musicians, and performances may last up to four hours. Panchavadyam is a different form of percussion ensemble, in which up to 100 artists use five types of percussion instrument. Kerala has various styles of folk and tribal music. The popular music of Kerala is dominated by the filmi music of Indian cinema. Kerala's visual arts range from traditional murals to the works of Raja Ravi Varma, the state's most renowned painter.

During Onam, Keralites create floral pookkalam designs in front of their houses.
Kerala has its own Malayalam calendar, which is used to plan agricultural and religious activities. Kerala's cuisine is typically served as a sadhya on green banana leaves. Such dishes as idli, payasam, pulisherry, puttucuddla, puzhukku, rasam, and sambar are typical. Keralites—both men and women alike—traditionally don flowing and unstitched garments. These include the mundu, a loose piece of cloth wrapped around men's waists. Women typically wear the sari, a long and elaborately wrapped banner of cloth, wearable in various styles.

Language and literature
Main articles: Malayalam language and Malayalam literature
The predominant spoken language in Kerala is Malayalam, most of whose speakers live in Kerala.
Malayalam literature is ancient in origin, and includes such figures as the 14th century Niranam poets (Madhava Panikkar, Sankara Panikkar and Rama Panikkar), and the 17th century poet Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan whose works mark the dawn of both modern Malayalam language and indigenous Keralite poetry. The "triumvirate of poets" (Kavithrayam), Kumaran Asan, Vallathol Narayana Menon, and Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer, are recognised for moving Keralite poetry away from archaic sophistry and metaphysics, and towards a more lyrical mode.
In the second half of the 20th century, Jnanpith awardees like G. Sankara Kurup, S. K. Pottekkatt, Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillaiand M. T. Vasudevan Nair have made valuable contributions to the Malayalam literature. Later, such Keralite writers as O. V. Vijayan, Kamaladas, M. Mukundan, and Booker Prize winner Arundhati Roy, whose 1996 semi-autobiographical bestseller The God of Small Things is set in the Kottayam town of Ayemenem, have gained international recognition.[112][113]

Media
Main article: Media in Kerala

Printed Malayalam text magnified by spectacles.
Dozens of newspapers are published in Kerala; they are printed in nine major languages.[114] The principal languages of publication are Malayalam and English. The most widely circulating Malayalam-language newspapers include Mathrubhumi, Malayala Manorama, Deepika, Kerala Kaumudi, and Desabhimani. Among major Malayalam periodicals are India Today Malayalam, Chithrabhumi, Kanyaka, and Bhashaposhini.
Doordarshan is the state-owned television broadcaster. Multi system operators provide a mix of Malayalam, English, and international channels via cable television. Manorama News (MM TV) and Asianet are among the Malayalam-language channels that compete with the major national channels. All India Radio, the national radio service, reaches much of Kerala via its Thiruvananthapuram 'A' Malayalam-language broadcaster. BSNL, Reliance Infocomm, Tata Indicom, Hutch and Airtel compete to provide cellular phone services. Broadband internet is available in most of the towns and cities and is provided by different agencies like the state-run Kerala Telecommunications (which is run by BSNL) and by other private companies like Asianet Satellite communications, VSNL. Dial-up access is provided throughout the state by BSNL and other providers.
A substantial Malayalam film industry effectively competes against both Bollywood and Hollywood. Television (especially "mega serials" and cartoons) and the Internet have affected Keralite culture. Yet Keralites maintain high rates of newspaper and magazine subscriptions; 50% spend an average of about seven hours a week reading novels and other books. A sizeable "people's science" movement has taken root in the state, and such activities as writers' cooperatives are becoming increasingly common.[115][103]

Sports
Main article: Sports in Kerala

Kalari puttara shrines are seven-tiered platform-altars where kalaripayattu practitioners pray to the guardian deity.
Several ancient ritualised arts are Keralite in origin. These include kalaripayattu—kalari ("place", "threshing floor", or "battlefield") and payattu ("exercise" or "practice"). Among the world's oldest martial arts, oral tradition attributes kalaripayattu's emergence to Parasurama. Other ritual arts include theyyam and poorakkali. However, larger numbers of Keralites follow sports such as cricket, kabaddi, soccer, and badminton. Dozens of large stadiums, including Kochi's Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium and Thiruvananthapuram's Chandrashekaran Nair Stadium, attest to the mass appeal of such sports among Keralites.
Kerala has been the athletics powerhouse of India for decades. Several Keralite athletes have attained world-class status, including P. T. Usha, Suresh Babu, Shiny Wilson, K. M. Beenamol, M. D. Valsamma and Anju Bobby George.
Football is the most popular sport in the state.[116] Some notable football stars from Kerala include I. M. Vijayan and V. P. Sathyan.
Volleyball, another popular sport, is often played on makeshift courts on sandy beaches along the coast. Jimmy George, born in Peravoor, Kannur, was arguably the most successful volleyball player ever to represent India. At his prime he was regarded as among the world's ten best players.[117]
Cricket, which is the most-followed sport in the rest of India and South Asia, is less popular in Kerala. Shanthakumaran Sreesanth, who was born in Kothamangalam and often referred to as simply "Sreesanth", is a controversial right-arm fast-medium-pace bowler and a right-handed tail-ender batsman whose actions were pivotal in sealing, among other games, the 2007 ICC World Twenty20.[118] Among less successful Keralite cricketers is Tinu Yohannan, son of Olympic long jumper T. C. Yohannan.[119][120][121]

Tourism
Main article: Tourism in Kerala

Sunset at Varkala Beach, one of the state's most popular attractions.
Kerala, situated on the lush and tropical Malabar Coast, is one of the most popular tourist destinations in India. Named as one of the "ten paradises of the world" and "50 places of a lifetime" by the National Geographic Traveler magazine, Kerala is especially known for its ecotourism initiatives.[122][123] Its unique culture and traditions, coupled with its varied demographics, has made Kerala one of the most popular tourist destinations in the world. Growing at a rate of 13.31%, the state's tourism industry is a major contributor to the state's economy.[124]

A mohiniaattam performance.
Until the early 1980s, Kerala was a relatively unknown destination;[125] most tourist circuits focused on North India. Aggressive marketing campaigns launched by the Kerala Tourism Development Corporation, the government agency that oversees tourism prospects of the state, laid the foundation for the growth of the tourism industry. In the decades that followed, Kerala's tourism industry was able to transform the state into one of the niche holiday destinations in India. The tagline God's Own Country, originally coined by Vipin Gopal, has been widely used in Kerala's tourism promotions and soon became synonymous with the state. In 2006, Kerala attracted 8.5 million tourist arrivals, an increase of 23.68% over the previous year, making the state one of the fastest-growing destinations in the world.[126]

Kovalam Beach, Trivandrum
Popular attractions in the state include the beaches at Kovalam, Cherai and Varkala; the hill stations of Munnar, Nelliampathi, Ponmudi and Wayanad; and national parks and wildlife sanctuaries at Periyar and Eravikulam National Park. The "backwaters" region, which comprises an extensive network of interlocking rivers, lakes, and canals that centre on Alleppey, Kumarakom, and Punnamada (where the annual Nehru Trophy Boat Race is held in August), also see heavy tourist traffic. Heritage sites, such as the Padmanabhapuram Palace and the Mattancherry Palace, are also visited. Cities such as Kochi and Thiruvananthapuram are popular centres for their shopping and traditional theatrical performances. During early summer, the Thrissur Pooram is conducted, attracting foreign tourists who are largely drawn by the festival's elephants and celebrants.[127]